What is Insomnia? and the Symptoms

Tuesday, March 3, 2009

Insomnia on Psychology Journal

Are you or your family, including people who are experiencing insomnia? Insomnia or difficulty sleeping, for some people regarded as a normal thing, but if the insomnia is left it will lead to various consequences of the psychological and physical condition, and even death. In fact, what is insomnia? If insomnia is caused by factors such as psychological stress in a certain time because of the social situation, personal problems that are not finished, domestic violence issues, crisis household economists, the crisis in the business, and so the insomnia is classified as insomnia due to psychological factors. However, if you only have insomnia only 1 or 2 days and this is because the environment where you live a noisy then you only need to move residence to cure your insomnia. In addition, if you experience insomnia because they were experiencing physical pain and insomnia will disappear after you recover. On this occasion, we will discuss about the insomnia caused by psychological factors, because it can cause various harmful effects on people with insomnia, can even cause death. Therefore, you first need to know what the definition of insomnia.


Is Insomnia?
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders-IV (DSM-IV) defines insomnia as difficulty sleeping launch, maintaining sleep, does not feel fresh in the morning and wake up the poor quality of sleep. Once you know the definition of insomnia, whether you are considering starting up, what you are experiencing insomnia or not. For more details, you need to know what symptoms of insomnia. However, please note that here we are discussing insomnia because psychological factors, not the other factors

Insomnia Symptoms
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders-IV (DSM-IV), showed some symptoms may be diagnosed where someone is suffering insomnia due to psychological factors, namely:

1. Difficult to start, maintaining sleep, and can not improve sleep for at least one month is the most keluahan occur.
2. Insomnia is a cause of stress so that it can disrupt the function of social, work area or the other important functions.
3. Insomnia due to psychological factors, this is not including narkolepsi, sleep disturbances related to respiratory, sirkadian rhythm disturbances or parasomnia.
4. Insomnia due to psychological factors do not occur due to interference, such as mental disturbances depression, delirium.
5. Insomnia due to psychological factors do not occur due to the direct physiological effects of a substance such as drug abuse or a general medical condition.

With the symptoms mentioned by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders-IV (DSM-IV), and insomnia due to psychological factors can disrupt the various social functions.

Insomnia on Psychology Journal

What is self disclosure?

Monday, March 2, 2009

Self-disclosure is a simple (at least on the surface) approach to communication that involves sharing information about yourself, history, present, emotions and thoughts. Originated and explained by Sidney Jourard, a Humanistic Psychologist, this simple approach, at least used skillfully, can improve intimacy, rapport in face to face communication, and even improve public speaking and connecting with groups.

The concept is very simple. When you share information about yourself, you allow yourself to be "seen", and it's easier for people to relate to you as a real human being, with faults and strengths, and with thoughts and emotions. And, when people see you as human (and not someone easily depersonalized) communication, and relationships improve.

It's important to know that self-disclosure doesn't involve "dumping" everything about yourself on everyone from close friends to complete strangers. Obviously self-disclosure needs to happen in context, be appropriate for the particular relationships. While self-disclosure is important, remember that communication means sharing of information from both sides, and if you are inundating the other person with too much information about yourself, or information they really have no interest in, then the whole thing is going to backfire, because you will appear selfish and self-centered.

When speaking to groups (keynotes, meetings, speeches, public speaking), it's always a good tactic to share a little of yourself as a person, so you can overcome depersonalization barriers to group communication. Often the best way to self-disclose in groups is to tell a real personal story that is relevant to the reason why the group is meeting. That's much better than opening up with a stale joke.

source ; http://www.work911.com/
self disclosure on Psychology Journal

Self-Disclosures that are difficult

Self-Disclosures that are difficult on Psychology Journal

Although recognized that self-disclosure is very important for the development of the individual, but some people are still reluctant to do so. Basically the difficulty or reluctance to reveal the individual in a lot of self-based risk factors that will be received in the future, on the side because there is no sense of security and trust in yourself. Risk is damage information can be given to someone to third parties when the information is considered highly by the instructors of private information, or information can be presented thus offend other people so that they can disrupt interpersonal relationships that previously have been involved with both. In addition to the disclosure or the conditions are not right, there would be a boomerang for the granting of information. In addition to risk factors, pattern of care also factor plays an important role. In the family or environment that does not support the spirit of openness and information sharing practices so individuals can be difficult to reveal themselves appropriately. That is why some people are very difficult to share information with other people, once the information is also very positive for themselves and others.

Although the self-risk for the perpetrator (our information), but experts assume that the psychology of self-importance. This is the base that says that self-disclosure (which is done properly) is an indication of someone's mental health care. Research shows that individuals are able to reveal the exact self-evidently more able to adapt (adaptive), the more self-confident, more competent, extrovert, reliable, able to be more positive and confident person to another, more objective and open (David Johnson , 1981; in mentalhelp.net). In addition, experts also believe that the psychology share information with others can improve mental health, prevent disease and reduce the psychological issues related to the interpersonal relationship. In terms of communication and provision of assistance to others, one of the ways that it deems most appropriate in helping other people to reveal themselves is to reveal ourselves to the first. Without the courage to self disclosure then other people will act the same, so that is not achieved effective communication.

Self-Disclosures that are difficult on Psychology Journal

Clinical Psychology; the scientific study

Tuesday, January 6, 2009

Clinical Psychology on Psychology Journal

Clinical psychology is the scientific study, diagnosis, and treatment of people who have psychological problems adjusting to themselves and the environment. Clinical psychologists deal with both normal and abnormal behaviour. They administer and interpret psychological tests, and assist in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. They also study the structure and development of personality.

Clinical psychology is a scientific and applied field of psychology. That is, it puts into practice the theories developed in the different fields of psychology. For example, clinical psychologists apply many findings of abnormal psychology when they diagnose and treat mental disorders. They also draw knowledge from the fields of learning, motivation, perception, personality, developmental psychology, physiological psychology, and social psychology. Clinical psychologists work in government, hospitals, clinics, universities, and private practice. Their chief activities are (1) testing and diagnosis, (2) psychotherapy and consultation, and (3) research.

Testing and diagnosis.

Clinical psychologists develop, administer, and interpret tests that measure aptitude, intelligence, and personality. These tests can be used in diagnosing mental disorders. They are also used to help determine proper placements for people in schools and jobs.

Psychotherapy and consultation.

Clinical psychologists treat mental disorders that result in disturbed human relationships or individual anxiety or unhappiness. They deal with brief, minor disturbances such as stress resulting from a school failure or grief due to the loss of a loved one. They also try to solve the prolonged problems of internal emotional conflicts often called neuroses and of psychoses. Psychoses are problems in which a person's thoughts, feelings, words, or perceptions are severely unrealistic.

Psychotherapy is the clinical psychologist's chief tool in treating mental disorders. In most kinds of psychotherapy, the psychologist talks with the patient in a series of informal interviews. In most cases, the psychologist tries to help the patient understand the cause of the patient's personality disturbance.

Understanding and preventing mental disorders is an important goal of clinical psychologists. They develop and take part in consultation programmes to educate the public in methods of improving child care and relationships and expanding mental health facilities. They also work with the clergy, teachers, and others who deal with children to help identify and solve psychological problems that develop at an early stage.

Research.

Clinical psychologists are trained to design and conduct scientific experiments. Through their knowledge and use of research techniques, they improve various methods of diagnosing and treating mental disorders. They propose and test new theories on the structure and development of personality. They also develop and evaluate new testing and treatment methods.

Clinical Psychology on Psychology Journal

School Psychology

Sunday, January 4, 2009

School Psychology on Psychology Journal

School psychology as a career option has been a popular choice among students in the U.S. and in Europe. The content and nature of the practice of school psychology has been variously defined and the origins are not entirely clear. I was a school psychologist from 1971 to 1994. In fact, I was one of the first three school psychologists in the state of Texas. The profession was very young then, since it was only in 1968 that the National Association of School Psychology (NASP) was formed and the discipline was formally recognized by the American Psychological Association (APA) as a doctoral speciality; it was later recognized by the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP). During these formative years, the educational orientation of school psychologists has varied and changed. The changes in the profession reflect the character of the individual departments and programs as well as the various regions of the country and diverse populations in the communities and schools where professionals work.

How are school psychologists' roles defined?
The role and functions of everyday practice are dictated by the employment setting and other demographic features of the area. Other major influences have been special and regular education rules and standards; federal and state laws governing public schools; and all employees of the setting. With the passage of 94-142, The Education of All Handicapped Children's Act (U.S. Congress, 1975), school psychologists have been primarily involved in assessment of and intervention with handicapped children, offering counseling and consultation to their teachers and families. Other important federal laws have mandated service delivery to a variety of school populations. The development of the profession has been called random by some writers. Now, school psychology is a recognized speciality within psychology, with requisite standards for training, credentialing, and service delivery.
Societal and educational contexts, education reform, and school effectiveness literature have had significant effects on the training and practice of school psychologists. In addition, the evolution of the National Association of School Psychology has had a profound impact on the profession. This organization is made up of nondoctoral professionals (80%) and is a visible, strong, and feasible professional representative for the school psychologist today. At the doctoral level, Division 16, the Division of School Psychology, is a much smaller organization with approximately 2,000 members. It is made up of doctoral professionals, most of whom are trainers in universities and colleges. Most states have state associations of school psychology that have an impact on school psychologists' role and function within their respective states through active lobbying.

What are the actual job functions?
School psychologists, at all levels, work as applied scientists and interventionists, descriptionists, rational empiricists, and systems managers. Their expertise varies according to their level of training and practice, but generally, school psychologists provide assessments and diagnoses, oversee interventions ranging from individual counseling to group and family work, and provide consultation to teachers, administrators, community agencies, parent groups, and youth. They also provide supervision, pre-services, and in-service training to teachers, administrators, and professional groups. In addition, school psychologists perform program evaluations, develop case studies, and use applied research methods to solve school problems and professional practice questions. In response to the growing numbers of children referred for either educational or mental health difficulties, school psychologists also focus on primary prevention in schools and communities.
School psychology has finally laid claim to its expertise in dealing with children in a wide variety of settings. Regardless of where these professionals work, they provide a wide variety of services to the populations they serve. School psychologists share functions with clinical, counseling, organizational, and experimental psychology. In a sense, school psychology is a hybrid of several specialities and continues to evolve in its practice and service delivery techniques. Doctoral school psychologists bring additional supervisory and program evaluation skills. They also possess research knowledge beyond that which nondoctoral school psychologists can provide. However, the bottom line with regard to job role development is the social context and individual creativity of the professional.

Where do school psychologists work?
The primary places of employment for professionals with master's or specialist-level degrees are public and private schools. School psychologists work with diverse ages, from infant programs to high school, and you will find a great variety of services provided by each professional. In many states master's- and specialist-level professionals also have private practice options as well as career paths with clinics or state institutions. School psychologists also work with other professionals in human services and mental health clinics. Those at this level are guided by the National Association of School Psychology Standards of Professional Training as well as state certification and licensing standards for training and functioning.
Doctoral school psychologists have a variety of career options as well. Many doctoral professionals work in private and public schools or at universities and colleges. Others, as recipients of PhD, PsyD, or EdD degrees, have options of public or private practice if they hold the appropriate licenses for the state in which they live. Doctoral-level school psychologists, when employed by school systems, are often in administrative roles as well as service delivery roles. The roles and functions of doctoral psychologists are guided by professional standards set forth by the American Psychological Association (1981) and the National Association of School Psychology (1984).

How do you find training programs?
The two best guides to training programs are APA's Guide to Graduate Programs in Psychology (1996) and NASP's Directory of School Psychology Training Programs (1984). The APA guide gives descriptions of programs at the doctoral level, while the NASP guide has descriptions of master's, specialist, and doctoral programs.
Training programs can be found in every state at the specialist, master's, and doctoral levels. These programs are equally housed in education departments, in educational psychology departments, and in psychology departments. Your state psychology board should have a list of training programs in your area, and your state's school psychology association should also maintain lists of the programs in the NASP Directory.

What do these training programs entail?
Programs range in hours and training from 40 hours at the master's level to 124 hours at the doctoral level. NASP-approved programs include practicum and internship requirements. APA programs have similar requirements for all doctoral programs, which are more diverse in training than the NASP programs. The NASP programs lead to students becoming qualified to take the National School Psychology Certification Examination. This specialist certification is often connected to the state certification and licensure laws and rules. You need to check with your state board of psychology and your state education agency for local requirements.
Doctoral programs will also have a specific model of training, either the scientist-practitioner model or the applied professional model. In the past it was more common to find a scientist- researcher model program whose graduates were primarily trained to take academic positions and be researchers. Few such programs exist today.
The scientist-practitioner model assumes that all psychologists receive basic training in core areas of psychology, such as quantitative methods, personality theory, history and systems of psychology, developmental psychology, learning, motivation, cognition, social psychology, and the biological basis of behavior. Programs based on this model are similar to those offered in other fields of psychology.
The applied professional model also is currently employed in a number of programs. This model focuses more on applied course work rather than on core theoretical courses. Typical course work for programs espousing this model include intelligence assessment, learning problems assessment, consultation, social problems assessment, general educational theory, special education, behavioral interventions and assessment, history and systems of psychology, developmental and learning theories, neuropsychology, and abnormal psychology. Current trends are shifting away from the scientist-practitioner model and toward the applied professional model. New programs in school psychology at the doctoral level tend to be PsyD rather than PhD programs.

What about salary, flexibility, job satisfaction, demographics?
If you work in the public service sector, you can expect slightly lower salaries than if you work in private business. Salaries are competitive with all other school or clinic professionals, and if you work in the schools, your work contract will follow the school calendar. It is an especially excellent choice for both men and women who want to marry and raise a family. The close ties of the employment contract with the school work day and school terms can be a great advantage in your family life.
Reschly and Wilson (1995) reported on the characteristics of practitioners and faculty from 1986 to 1992. These authors suggest that there have been some changes in demographics, in that women are more likely to be practitioners and men are more likely to hold faculty positions. High job satisfaction was reported in both settings with some concern about advancement opportunities among the practitioners. Salaries were good, but there was a difference between faculty and practitioners. Faculty reported more outside employment income than practitioners and differed by $9,000 on the average salary. Average faculty income was $57,000; doctoral practitioners, $51,000; and nondoctoral, $40,000. These are not entry-level salaries, as the mean years of experience was about 15. Also, this study did not consider gender, age, or geographic area. Overall changes from two earlier studies suggest a graying of the school psychologists and significant degree changes from fewer master's degrees to more specialist-level degrees. Eighty percent of the graduates in school psychology training programs are at the specialist level as reported in 1991 in a study by Reschly and McMaster-Beyer.
After 24 years, I can say with confidence that school psychology is a promising field, and there are many job opportunities in a variety of settings. You can work at the nondoctoral level or at the doctoral level, in traditional or nontraditional settings. As you narrow your career choices, take some time to consider school psychology!


References

American Psychological Association. (1996). Graduate study in psychology. Washington, DC: Author.

American Psychological Association. (1981). Speciality guidelines for the delivery of services by school psychologists. Washington, DC: Author.

Batsche, G. (1995). Best practices in credentialing and continuing professional development. In Best Practices (5). Washington, DC: NASP.

Brown, T., & Minke, K. (Eds.). (1984). Directory of school psychology training programs. Washington, DC.

National Association of School Psychology. (1984a). Standards for the provision of school psychological services. Washington, DC: Author.

National Association of School Psychology. (1984b). Standards for training and field placement programs in school psychology. Washington, DC: Author.

Prus, J., White, G., & Pendleton, A. (1988). Handbook of certification/licensure requirements for school psychologists (4th ed.). Washington, DC: NASP.

Reschly, D., & McMaster-Beyer, M. D. (1991). Influences of degree level, institutional orientation, college affiliation, and accreditation status on school psychology graduate education. Pro-fessional Psychology: Research and Practice, 22(5), 368-74.

Reschly, D. & Wilson, M. (1995). School psychology practitioners and faculty: 1986 to 1991-92 trends in demographics, roles, satisfaction, and system reform. School Psychology Review, 24(1), 62-80.

School Psychology on Psychology Journal

Social Psychology; branch of psychology

Friday, January 2, 2009

Social Psychology on Psychology Journal

Social psychology is a branch of psychology which examines the impact of social influences on human behavior. This field is vast, encompassing a wide range of fields of study and several disciplines. Social psychology is also used in a range of disciplines and industries; many people utilize the principles of social psychology without even being aware of it when they try to control a group, influence someone's opinion, or explain why someone behaves in a particular way.

The roots of social psychology were laid in the late 1800s, when psychology as a discipline was thriving in Europe. As the First World War drove many psychologists to the United States, social psychology began to arise as a distinct discipline in the 1920s. One of the major influences on the field was Kurt Lewin, who is called the “father” of social psychology by some people; other famous social psychologists include Zimbardo, Asch, Milgram, Festinger, Ross, and Mischel.

A social psychologist looks at the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of both individuals and groups. The field also examines interpersonal interaction, analyzing the way in which someone interacts with other people, whether on a singular basis or in the form of a large group. Social psychology also examines cultural influences like advertisements, books, films, television, and radio, looking at the ways in which these influences impact human behavior.

Like many scientists, social psychologists like to use empirical methods to conduct studies in their fields. These methods often involve experiments which can bring up complex ethical issues. One of the most infamous social psychology experiments was the Stanford Prison Experiment, which was ultimately shut down because it got out of control. Social psychologists rely on the efforts of ethics committees and review panels to ensure that their work is ethically allowable, in the hopes of avoiding a repeat of questionable experiments.

The study of social psychology can explain why people form mobs, how groups make decisions, which social conditions can lead to aberrant behavior, and a wide range of other things. Social psychologists are constantly learning more about human behavior and the science behind human interactions, looking at everything from why people fail to help people in need to what leads people to conform, even in ethically dubious situations.

If you want to learn more about this field of psychology, you may be able to take an introductory course at a local college in your area. You can also consult your library for a number of published texts on the subject, but beware; once you start studying social psych, it can be hard to stop!

Social Psychology on Psychology Journal

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Thursday, January 1, 2009

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY on Psychology Journal

The social sciences are dedicated to understanding the human condition, ideally to the extent that the singular and collective behaviors of human beings can be understood and even predicted. Though their goals are identical in the abstract, these "sciences" differ in terms of their way of looking at things, the questions they ask, the methods they use in addressing these questions, and what they do with this information once they obtain it.

Amid this multitude of social science disciplines is social psychology which, as can be inferred from its label, involves the ways in which both social and mental processes determine action. What, precisely, this means research-wise, however, remains a matter of historic debate both between and within the disciplines of psychology and sociology. What weight is to be given to the social, the psychological, and the interaction between the two? What does the interaction between psychological and sociological processes even mean?

In approaching the problem of why some people do certain things, psychologists (see Wesleyan's Social Psychology Network) are inclined to give greater attention to the bearing of thought processes, personality characteristics, and their changes across the life-cycle. The closed, stereotypic thinking of authoritarians, for instance, make them more likely to be prejudiced and to join extreme right-wing political groups.

Sociologists, on the other hand, being more interested in understanding the relationships between group structures and processes (typologizing groups much like psychologists classify selves as the first step toward predicting their activities), are inclined to give greater attention to the social settings and individuals' roles therewithin. As opposed to psychology's atomization of the human condition, focusing on the self and its inner workings, sociologists' attention is directed toward human connections. Connectedness with others is an overarching personal drive, and the bonds produced comprise the social fabric of interrelationships. The strength of this social fabric is determined by the multiplicity and quality of connections individuals and groups (both large and small) have with each other. Further, from this sociological perspective of the human condition, these groups have dynamics of their own (often distinct from members' intentions and desires) that cannot be reduced down to the psychology of individuals. Like differing board games, these social orders have their own rules, roles, styles of play, traditions, cultures, and rates of change over time. Change the "game" and you change the style of thinking, the language, motivations, activities, alliances, and identities of the players.

It is for these reasons that sociologically-inclined social psychologists are more likely to examine how individuals' perceptions, belief systems, moralities, identities, and behaviors are determined by their positions in social space:

* the culture of their primary socializations;
* the slice of social history intersecting their biographies, such as coming of age during a time of depression or war;
* their locations within the stratification orders of gender, age, race, and social class;
* their roles within the institutional orders of religion, work, community, and family;
* the geographic context of their childhoods, such as region of the country or the size of cities wherein they lived;
* and their memberships in and relative identifications with various social groups.
* For other illustrations, check out Alan Reifman's SPIDER (Social Psychology of Information Diffusion -Educational Resources), Psych-Net UK, Jeremy Dean's Psyblog, Jon Mueller's Resources for the Teaching of Social Psychology, and the online resources from the Social Science Information Gateway. The American Psychology Association's Monitor on Psychology and the Social Psychology section of the American Sociological Association are also worth occasional visits.

Not surprisingly, evolving in this hybrid discipline is a perspective that more explicitly focuses on the interactions between the sociological and the psychological, producing new connections and new questions. Change the social connections and you change the essence of the self and its cognitive, emotive, and bonding capacities. Change the way social reality is psychologically parsed and processed and you ultimately change the nature and course of group dynamics. For instance, what kind of personality type might come to predominate in a capitalistic, secular, gerontophobic, death-denying, sex- obsessed culture where the young are socialized in single-parent families, with sports stars as role models, and whose lessons of adult life primarily come from commercially-based electronic messages? This emergent perspective integrates developments in such related social sciences as anthropology, linguistics, economics, political science, religion, history, communication studies, and sociobiology. These interactions are the subject of a text that I co-authored with Chad Gordon, Social Psychology: Shaping Identity, Thought, and Conduct (Allyn and Bacon, 1993). Though this page was created as a companion piece for this work, its links should complement most social psychology courses.

Social Psychology on Psychology Journal

Clinical psychology

Sunday, December 28, 2008

Clinical Psychology on Psychology Journal

Clinical psychologists aim to reduce psychological distress and to enhance and promote psychological well-being.

They work with people with mental or physical health problems - which might include anxiety and depression, serious and enduring mental illness, adjustment to physical illness, neurological disorders, addictive behaviours, childhood behaviour disorders, personal and family relationships. They work with people throughout the life-span and with those with learning disabilities.

Clinical psychologists work largely in health and social care settings including hospitals, health centres, community mental health teams, child and adolescent mental health services and social services, also they will often work alongside other professionals including doctors, nurses, social workers, occupational therapists and physiotherapists.

To assess a client, a clinical psychologist may undertake a clinical assessment using a variety of methods including psychometric tests, interviews and direct observation of behaviour. Assessment may lead to therapy, counselling or advice.

Due to their high level of research skills clinical psychologists undertake the role of scientist-practitioner as an innovator and applied researcher adding to the evidence base of practice in a variety of health care settings.

Clinical Psychology on Psychology Journal

Developmental psychology

Saturday, December 27, 2008

Developmental Psychology on Psychology Journal

Developmental psychology is the study of changes in behaviour during a lifetime. Many developmental psychologists study only a part of the lifespan. Most are chiefly interested in childhood and adolescence, the period of a person's life between birth and the early 20's.

There are four main theories of child development that psychologists use in research on the behaviour of children: (1) maturational theory, (2) psychoanalytical theory, (3) learning theory, and (4) cognitive theory.

Maturational theory states that the chief principle of developmental change is maturation, which means physiological "ripening," especially of the nervous system. Arnold L. Gesell, the leading American supporter of this theory, found that the growing child's behaviour seems to follow a set developmental pattern. He described in detail the ways in which behaviour changes with age. Gesell believed that differences among people result more from heredity than from environment.

Psychoanalytical theory is based on Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis. According to Freud, children are driven by impulses of sex and aggression. Children develop through a complicated interaction between their needs, based on sexual impulses, and the demands of their environment. Environmental demands are represented first by loving and restricting parents, and later by the children's own version of their parents' demands.

Anna Freud, Erik Erikson, and others have modified Freud's theory and applied it to child behaviour. In the psychoanalytical view of development, children change through conflict, chiefly between their own impulses and the demands of reality. A successful solution of this conflict brings normal development, and an unsuccessful solution may lead to mental illness.

Learning theory says a child's development depends mainly on experience with reward and punishment. The child must learn certain responses--such as speech, manners, and attitudes--to adults. Children learn these responses through their association with reinforcement (any condition that makes learning occur). If a mother smiles at her child each time the child is polite to adults, her smile reinforces the learning of manners. The task of the adult is to arrange the environment so that it provides suitable and effective reinforcements for desired behaviour.

Learning theorists base their ideas on two basic learning experiments--studies of classical conditioning by Ivan P. Pavlov and studies of instrumental conditioning by E. L. Thorndike and B. F. Skinner. Maturation and heredity have relatively little importance in the learning theory of development.

Cognitive theory regards the child as an active solver of problems. Cognitive theorists emphasize the role of a child's natural motivation as the key factor in development. This motivation can include the desire of children to satisfy their curiosity, master challenging tasks, or reduce the inconsistencies and ambiguities they find in the world about them. According to cognitive theory, children form their own theories about the world and the relationships among its different aspects. The theories are primitive at first, but become more realistic after they have been tested against the child's experience.

Comprehensive cognitive theories of development have been proposed by a number of authorities, including the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget described in detail how growing children change their ideas about number, cause, time, space, and morality. First, the children represent the world in terms of their own activities. Then they move to a limited set of generalizations based on their knowledge of specific cases. Finally, the children gain the ability to make valid and abstract generalizations about reality.

Maturity and old age.

In general, the study of psychology in maturity and old age has been based on observation. There have been no clear theoretical principles to guide the search for consistent patterns of development.

Scientists have established that sensory acuity (keenness), speed of response, productivity in art and science, and the ability to process new information decline with age, particularly after the late 50's. Less well documented are declines in memory and in the ability to solve familiar kinds of problems. Psychologists know little about the most remarkable fact of old age--that some people go through a degrading decline with the passage of years, and others remain capable and active until the end of their lives.

Developmental Psychology on Psychology Journal